Recently, the inventors have described a series of di-arylguanidines which are potent ligands for brain sigma receptors (Weber, et al., PNAS (USA) 83:8784-8788 (1986); Campbell et al., J. Neurosci, 9:3380-3391 (1989); U.S. Pat. No. 4,709,094). Brain sigma receptors bind many psychotropic drugs (Sonders et al., Trends Neurosci. 11:37-40 (1988)). The physiological function of sigma receptors in the nervous system is subject to intense investigations (Sonders et al., Trends Neurosci. 11:37-40 (1988)) because certain sigma receptor selective compounds have known antipsychotic activity suggesting that sigma receptor active compounds can be used for the treatment of schizophrenia (Largent et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol. 11:345-347 (1988)).
A wide variety of substituted guanidines are disclosed in the patent literature. For example:
1,411,731 and 1,422,506 discloses diphenylguanidine as a rubber accelerator;
1,597,233 discloses N-o-tolyl-N'-phenyl-guanidine as a rubber accelerator;
1,672,431 discloses N,N'-di-o-methoxyphenyl-guanidine as being useful for therapeutic purposes, especially in the form of water-soluble salts;
1,730,338 discloses N-p-dimethyl-amino-phenyl-N'-phenylguanidine as a rubber accelerator;
1,795,738 discloses a process for the production of N,N'-dialkyl-di-substituted guanidines, including N-di-ethyl-N'-phenyl-guanidine, N-diethyl-N-isoamylguanidine, N-dimethyl-N'-isoamylguanidine and N-dimethyl-N'-ethylguanidine;
1,850,682 discloses a process for the preparation of disubstituted guanidine rubber accelerators bearing an additional substituent on the imine nitrogen atom;
2,145,214 discloses the use of disubstituted guanidines, e.g., diarylguanidines especially dixylylguanidine, as parasiticides;
2,254,009 discloses sym-di-2-octyl-guanidine and 2,274,476 and 2,289,542 disclose sym-dicyclohexylguanidine as insecticides and moth larvae repellents;
2,633,474 discloses 1,3-bis(o-ethylphenyl)guanidine and 1,3-bis(p-ethylphenyl)guanidine as rubber accelerators;
3,117,994 discloses N,N',N'-trisubstituted guanidines and their salts as bacteriostatic compounds;
3,140,231 discloses N-methyl- and N-ethyl-N'-octylguanidines and their salts as antihypertensive agents;
3,248,246 describes (Example 5) a 1,3-disubstituted guanidine whose substituents are hydrophobic hydrocarbon groups, one of which is naphthylmethyl and the other is n-butyl;
3,252,816 discloses various N-substituted and unsubstituted cinnamyl-guanidines and generically the corresponding N'- and N"-alkyl substituted compounds and their salts as antihypertensive agents;
3,270,054 discloses N-2-adamant-1-yl- and N-2-homoadamant-1-yl-oxy-ethyl-thioethyl- and aminoethyl-guanidine derivatives bearing at most two lower alkyl groups on the N'- and/or N"-nitrogen atom as sympathicolytic and anti-viral agents;
3,301,755 discloses N-ethylenically unsubstituted-alkyl-guanidines and the corresponding N'- and/or N"-lower alkyl compounds as hypoglycemic and antihypertensive agents;
3,409,669 discloses N-cyclohexylamino-(3,3-dialkyl-substituted-propyl)-guanidines and the corresponding N'-alkyl- and/or N"-alkyl-substituted compounds as hypotensive agents;
3,547,951 discloses 1,3-dioxolan-4-yl-alkyl-substituted guanidines which have anti-hypertensive activity and discloses lower alkyl, including n-butyl, as a possible substituent on the other amino group;
3,639,477 discloses propoxylguanidine compounds as having anorectic properties;
3,681,459; 3,769,427; 3,803,324; 3,908,013; 3,976,787; and 4,014,934 disclose aromatic substituted guanidine derivatives wherein the phenyl ring can contain hydroxy and/or halogen substituents for use in vasoconstrictive therapy;
3,804,898 discloses N-benzylcyclobutenyl and N-benzylcyclobutenyl-alkyl-guanidines and the corresponding N-alkyl and/or N"-alkyl-substituted compounds as hypotensive agents;
3,968,243 discloses N-aralkyl substituted guanidines and the corresponding N'-alkyl-n"alkyl and N',N'-aralkyl compounds as being useful in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias;
3,795,533 discloses o-halo-benzylidene-amino-guanidines and their use as anti-depressants for overcoming psychic depression;
4,007,181 discloses various N,N'-disubstituted guanidines substituted on the imine nitrogen atom by adamantyl as possessing antiarrhythmic and diuretic activities;
4,051,256 discloses N-phenyl- and N-pyridyl-N'-cycloalkyl-guanidines as antiviral agents;
4,052,455 and 4,130,663 disclose styrylamidines, as analgesics agents or for the prevention of blood platelet aggregation;
4,109,014 discloses N-hydroxysubstituted guanidines and the corresponding N-methyl disubstituted guanidines as vasoconstrictor agents;
4,169,154 discloses the use of guanidines in the treatment of depression;
4,393,007 discloses N-substituted and unsubstituted, N-substituted methyl-N'-unsubstituted, monosubstituted and disubstituted-N"-unsubstituted and substituted guanidines as ganglionic blocking agents; and
4,471,137 discloses N,N,N'N"-tetraalkyl guanidines as being sterically hindered bases useful in chemical synthesis.
4,709,094 discloses 1,3-disubstituted-guanidines, e.g., 1-3-dibutyl-guanidine and 1,3 di-o-tolyl-guanidine, as sigma brain receptor ligands.
For examples of other substituted guanidines, see, e.g., 1,422,506; 1,642,180; 1,756,315; 3,159,676; 3,228,975; 3,248,426; 3,283,003; 3,320,229; 3,479,437; 3,547,951; 3,639,477; 3,784,643; 3,949,089; 3,975,533; 4,060,640 and 4,161,541.
Geluk, H. W., et al., J. Med. Chem., 12,712 (1969) describe the synthesis of a variety of adamantyl disubstituted guanidines as possible antiviral agents, including N,N'-di-(adamantan-1-yl)-guanidine hydrochloride, N-(adamantan-1-yl)-N'-cyclohexyl-guanidine hydrochloride and N-(adamantan-1-yl)-N'-benzyl-guanidine hydrochloride.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,709,094 (1987), discloses N,N'-disubstituted guanidine derivatives which exhibit high binding activity with respect to the sigma receptor having the Formula (I): ##STR2## wherein R and R' are an alkyl group of at least 4 carbon atoms, a cycloalkyl group of 3-12 carbon atoms, or carbocyclic or aryl, of at least 6 carbon atoms.
Two of the novel N,N'-disubstituted guanidines disclosed therein are also claimed therein viz., 1,3-di-(4-halo-2-methylphenyl)-guanidine and 1,3-di-(4-3H!-(2-methylphenyl)-guanidine.
Also claimed therein is a method of determining the relationship of abnormal psychotic-like behavior in a mammal displaying such behavior to sigma receptor system dysfunction, which comprises administering to the mammal displaying such behavior a water-soluble N,N'-disubstituted-guanidine which displaces in vitro N,N'-di-(4- .sup.3 H!-2-methylphenyl)-guanidine bound to mammalian brain membrane, in an amount effective to alter the sigma brain receptor-modulated mental activity of the mammal; a method of treating a human being suffering from a psychotic mental illness associated with hallucinations, which comprises administering thereto a water-soluble N,N'-disubstituted guanidine which is an antagonist to the sigma receptor binding activity of a hallucinogenic benzomorphan, in an amount effective to ameliorate the hallucinations.
In U.S. Pat. No. 4,709,094 is further disclosed a method of determining the sigma brain receptor binding activity of an organic compound which comprises the steps of a) contacting in an aqueous medium a known amount of isolated mammalian brain membrane which has sigma receptor-like binding activity, with a mixture of (i) a tritium labeled N,N'-disubstituted guanidine which selectively binds sigma brain receptors, in a known amount capable of being bound to the sigma receptors of that brain membrane; and (ii) varying known amounts of a water soluble organic compound to be assayed for sigma receptor binding activity; b) separating the brain membrane from the tritium labeled compound which is not bound to the brain membrane in step a); and c) determining, from the molar relationship of the proportion of bound tritium-labeled compound which is separated in step b) to the molar amount of the organic compound employed in step a), the sigma receptor binding activity of that organic compound.
Certain benzomorphan opiates, such as N-allyl-normetazocine (SKF 10,047) and cyclazocine, in addition to analgesia, cause hallucinations, depersonalization, drunkenness and other psychotomimetic effects in man. In monkeys, dogs and rodents the psychotomimetic opiates cause behavioral and autonomic effects that are unlike those observed with administration of classical opiates such as morphine or the opioid peptides. Specific sigma "opioid" receptors in the brain are believed to mediate such atypical effects. Martin et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 197:517-532 (1976). It is believed that the sigma receptors also mediate some of the psychotomimetic effects of phencyclidine PCP, angel dust!, or alternatively, that psychotomimetic opiates act at specific PCP receptors. Zukin, R. S., et al., Mol. Pharmacol. 20:246-254 (1981); Shannon, H. E., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 225:144-152 (1983); White, J. M., et al., Psycho-pharmacology 80:1-9 (1983); and Zukin et al., J. Neurochem. 46:1032-1041 (1986). PCP is a drug of abuse that causes a behavioral syndrome in man similar to that which is observed in schizophrenic psychosis. Aniline, O., et al., CRC Critical Rev. Toxicol. 10:145-177 (1982). Because of the potent psychotomimetic effects of sigma opiates and PCP, it is believed that sigma (and/or PCP) receptors play a role in mental illness, particularly schizophrenia.
A systematic investigation of the role of sigma receptors in normal and abnormal brain function has been hindered by a lack of specific sigma receptor binding assays and bioassays. Development of such specific assays requires well-characterized, highly selective and potent sigma receptor ligands. Recent studies have shown that brain membrane receptors can be labeled in vitro with (+) .sup.3 H!SKF 10,047, Su, T. P., J. Pharmacol, Exp. Ther. 223:284-290 (1982); (+) .sup.3 H!SKF 10,047, Tam, S. W., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81:5618-5621 (1984); Martin et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 231:539-544 (1984); and Mickelson, M. M., et al., Res. Commun. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. 47:255-263 (1985), although not selectively, Gundlach et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol. 113:465-466 (1985); and Largent, B. L., et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 238:739-748 (1986), and with (+) .sup.3 H!3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-N-(1-propyl)-piperidine ((+) .sup.3 H!3 -PPP), Largent et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81:4983-4987 (1984), which is apparently more selective for sigma receptors than the others.
After the initial in vitro studies by Martin et al., (1976) supra, Keats and Telford (Keats, A. S., et al., "Analgesics: Clinical Aspects." In Molecular Modification in Drug Design, R. F. Gould (ed.), Advances in Chemistry Series #45 Amer. Chem. Soc., Wash. D.C. (1964)), and Haertzen (Haertzen, C. A. Cyclazocine and Nalorphine on the Addiction Research Center Inventory (ARCI), Psychopharmacologia (Berl.) 18:366-377 (1970)), numerous investigators set out to biochemically characterize the different opiate receptors (mu receptors, kappa receptors and sigma receptors) in vitro.
The first evidence for the existence of a separate sigma receptor in test tube experiments was provided by Su (1982) supra in a paper describing an etorphine-inaccessible binding site in guinea pig brain membranes which was apparently selectively labeled by tritium-labeled SKF-10,047. To overcome the fact that SKF10,047 could label multiple opioid receptors in the brain, Su performed his receptor binding assay using tritium labeled SKF-10,047 in the presence of excess unlabeled etorphine. Etorphine is a very strong opiate agohist drug which is known to bind to delta receptors, mu receptors and kappa receptors with almost equal potency. Su used etorphine to saturate all mu, kappa and delta receptors in a brain membrane preparation and then added tritium labeled SKF-10,047. This enabled him to detect a sigma binding site that was apparently different from mu, kappa and delta receptors.
A major breakthrough in identifying the sigma receptor as a separate entity occurred when Tam et al., (1984), supra, demonstrated that the previous problems in selectively labeling the sigma receptor were caused by the fact that in all previous experiments a racemic SKF -10,047 preparation was used. Tam showed that using a tritium labeled (+)-SKF-10,047 isomer one could selectively label a sigma receptor that was different from the mu, delta and kappa opioid receptors. On the other hand, Tam showed that (-)-SKF-10,047 apparently labeled the mu and kappa receptors but not the sigma receptors. Tam, S. W., Eur. J. Pharm. 109:33-41 (1985). This finding has now been confirmed. (Martin et al., 1984, supra). Moreover, there is evidence from behavioral experiments, Khazan et al., Neuropharm. 23:983-987 (1984); Brady et al., Science 215:178-180 (1981), that it is the (+)-SKF-10,047 isomer that is solely responsible for the psychotomimetic effects of SKF-10,047.
One of the most important findings of the biochemical characterization of the sigma receptor has been that this receptor binds all synthetic opiate drugs that are known to have hallucinogenic and psychotomimetic effects. Opiates that do not have psychotomimetic effects in vivo do not bind to this receptor. Most importantly, it has been shown that besides hallucinogenic opiate drugs, the sigma receptor also binds many antipsychotic drugs that are used clinically to treat hallucinations in schizophrenic patients. (Tam and Cook, 1984). The initial observations with regard to antipsychotic drug binding to the sigma receptor (Su, 1982) were subsequently extensively confirmed and extended by Tam et al. (1984), supra, also showed that when one used radioactively labeled haloperidol, one of the most potent antipsychotic drugs that is used clinically, about half of the binding sites in brain membrane preparations are actually sigma receptors whereas the other half of the binding sites are apparently dopamine receptors. It has long been known that most antipsychotic drugs are also dopamine receptor antagonists. Previously the beneficial actions of antipsychotic drugs in psychotic patients have been attributed to the dopamine receptor-blocking effect of these drugs. It is clear from the work by Tam, however, that numerous clinically used antipsychotic drugs also bind to the sigma site. All antipsychotic drugs that bind to the sigma receptor may in part cause the beneficial effect of alleviating hallucinations through the sigma receptor. Taken together all these observations suggest the sigma receptor as a prime candidate to be involved in the pathogenesis of mental illness, particularly schizophrenia in which hallucinations are a major clinical symptom.
Deutsch, S. I., et al. (Clinical Neuropharmacology, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 105-119 (1988)) provided a review of the literature which implicates the sigma receptor site in psychosis and anti-drug efficacy. According to Deutsch et al., certain benzomorphans which possess analgesic potency in humans are also associated with a high incidence of psychotomimetic effects. It has now been concluded that the analgesic action is associated with the levorotatory isomers of racemic mixtures of the benzomorphans, while the psychotomimetic effects are attributable to the dextrorotatory isomers in the racemic mixtures. See Haertzen, C. A., Psychopharmacologia 18:366-77 (1970), and Manallack, D. T., et al., Pharmacol. Sci. 7:448-51 (1986). Coupled with the fact that many of the in vivo effects of these dextrorotatory enantiomers and the binding of dextrorotatory tritiated SKF-10,047 are not antagonized by naloxone or naltrexone, these data strongly support the concept that the psychotomimetic effects of the dextrorotatory enantiomers are associated with the sigma receptor binding site.
Further, Su, T. P., et al. (Life Sci. 38:2199-210 (1986)), and Contreras, P. C., et al. (Synapse 1:57-61 (1987)), have established the existence of endogenous ligands for the sigma receptor, suggesting that the dysregulation of the synthesis, release, or degradation of these natural ligands may be a naturally occurring mechanism of psychosis. Accordingly, sigma receptor antagonism provides the potential for an effective antipsychotic therapeutic treatment. See Ferris, R. M., et al., Life Sci. 38:2329-37 (1986), and Su, T. P., Neurosci. Let. 71:224-8 (1986).
As further evidence of the role of the sigma receptor in psychosis, the substituted carbazole cis-g- 3-(3,5-dimethyl-1-piperazinyl)propyl!carbazole dihydrochloride (rimcazole) was identified as a potential antipsychotic agent based on its ability to antagonize apomorphine-induced mesolimbic behaviors selectively without altering the intensity of stereotypic behaviors. Further, the compound does not accelerate the rate of dopamine synthesis and does not affect dopamine-stimulated production of cAMP in homogenates of rat striatum and olfactory tubercle, thus establishing that rimcazole does not exert its action at the level of post-synaptic dopamine receptors in the mesolimbic area.
Rimcazole is able to competitively inhibit the specific binding of dextrorotatory tritiated SKF-10,047, the prototype sigma receptor agonist, suggesting that rimcazole acts at the sigma receptor site. Rimcazole, therefore, shows potential antipsychotic activity in humans, without extrapyramidal effects, pharmacological behavior which is consistent with its role as a competitive antagonist of the sigma-receptor.
Another compound, BMY 14802, has demonstrated many properties in preclinical behavioral tests which suggest its efficacy as a potential antipsychotic agent which is devoid of extrapyramidal side effects. The compound (1) did not cause catalepsy in rats; (2) does not inhibit the binding of .sup.3 H!spiperone to the D.sub.2 class of striatal dopamine receptors in rats; (3) did not increase the maximal density of the .sup.3 H!spiperone-labeled D.sub.2 site in striatum even following chronic administration (20 days) to rats; (4) does not appear to interact with the D.sub.1 subclass of dopamine receptors; and (5) does not inhibit dopamine-stimulated cAMP production or the binding of .sup.3 H!SCH 23390 in vitro. These data suggest that BMY 14802 has a low potential for production of tardive dyskinesia and further suggests that the antipsychotic effects would be mediated by a nondopaminergic site. Further, BMY 14802 binds with relatively high affinity to the sigma receptor, with the binding being stereoselective (the dextrorotatory enantiomer being 10 times more potent at inhibiting binding than the levorotatory enantiomer). BMY 14802 does not bind to the adrenergic, muscarinic, cholinergic, or histaminergic sites, suggesting that the compound would not be associated with unpleasant sedative and autonomic side effects.
Accordingly, compounds which bind selectively to the sigma receptor site and which antagonize this site may be expected to be useful antipsychotic drugs which are devoid of extrapyramidal effects.
The antipsychotic and anti-schizophrenia drugs that are currently in use have very strong side effects that are mainly due to their action on dopamine receptors. The side effects often involve irreversible damage to the extrapyramidal nervous system which controls movement functions of the brain. Patients under long term antischizophrenic drug treatment often develop a syndrome that involves permanent damage of their ability to control coordinated movement.
The foregoing studies have shown that the sigma binding site has the characteristics of 1) stereo-selectivity towards dextrorotatory benzomorphan opiates and insensitivity for naloxone; 2) high affinity for haloperidol and moderate to high affinity for phenothiazine antipsychotic drugs which are also known to be potent dopamine receptor blockers; and 3) insensitivity for dopamine and apomorphine. This intriguing drug selectivity profile calls for a thorough analysis of the role of sigma receptors in normal and abnormal brain function. In order to do so, it is essential that a spectrum of highly selective and potent sigma receptor active compounds be available. This invention provides such compounds and methods for identifying other drugs having such activity.